12. tbl. 100. árg. 2014
National nutrition surveys and dietary changes in Iceland
Kannanir á mataræði og næringargildi fæðunnar á Íslandi. Tengsl efnahagsþrenginga og hollustu
Economic differences in healthy eating
Introduction. Here we compare results on food and nutrient intake from the two most recent Icelandic national nutrition surveys from 2010/11 and 2002 and compare intake of energy giving nutrients from 1990. Finally we assess associations beween a healthy diet and difficulties people have in making ends meet.
Materials and methods. Participants were selected by a random sample from the national register. Final sample was 1912 individuals in 2010/11 and 1934 in 2002, response rate 68.6% and 70.6% respectively. Diet was assessed by 24-hour recall. Results from the surveys were calculated using t-test and sssociations between a healthy diet and difficulties making ends meet by linear regression.
Results. Consumption of bread, bisquits, cakes and cookies, margarine, highly processed meat products, chips, sugared soft drinks and whole milk was lower in 2010/11 than in 2002 while consumption of whole grain bread, oat meal, fruits, vegetables, meat and cod liver oil was higher. Fish intake was unchanged. Fat intake decreased from 1990 to 2010/11, from 41E% to 35E%, saturated fatty acids from 20.0E% to 14.5E% and trans-fatty acids from 2.0E% to 0.8E%. Most of the changes occurred between 1990 and 2002. People having difficulties making ends meet consumed less fruits, vegetables and whole grain bread but more soft drinks in 2010/11 than those not having difficulties.
Conclusion. Dietary changes in Iceland from 2002 have mostly been toward recommended intake. Between 1990 and 2002 fat consumption decreased considerably, while less significant changes occurred from 2002 til 2010/11. Economic status is associated with healthy diet in Iceland.
Table I. Consumption of selected major foods, national surveys 2002 and 2010/11,
Mean (sd) g/day. Both sexes, age 18-80 years
|
2002 n=1174 |
2010/11 n=1312 |
p-value1 | Difference | |
| Milk and milk products total | 388 (377) | 300 (232) | <0,001 | -23% |
| Whole milk | 95 (205) | 59 (138) | <0,001 | -39% |
| Cheese | 36 (42) | 35 (31) | 0,3 | -5% |
| Bread, total | 117 (94) | 95 (61) | <0,001 | -19% |
| Bread, whole grain | 12 (28) | 22 (33) | <0,001 | 80% |
| Cakes and cookies | 59 (106) | 47 (62) | 0,001 | -19% |
| Oat meal porridge | 14 (64) | 29 (70) | <0,001 | 106% |
| Vegetables, total | 101 (109) | 120 (100) | <0,001 | 19% |
| Fruits and berries, total | 77 (113) | 119 (120) | <0,001 | 54% |
| Fish and fish products | 41 (77) | 46 (62) | 0,08 | 12% |
| Meat and meat products | 111 (114) | 130 (103) | 0,001 | 17% |
| Highly processed meat | 28 (62) | 22 (39) | 0,001 | -24% |
| Butter, butter products | 12 (19) | 12 (14) | 0,7 | -2% |
| Margarine | 6 (13) | 4 (5) | <0,001 | -32% |
| Vegetable oils | 2 (8) | 2 (5) | 0,8 | 4% |
| Cod liver oil | 1,3 (3,1) | 1,8 (3,3) | <0,001 | 40% |
| Soft drinks, total | 261(429) | 238 (339) | 0,1 | -9% |
| Sugared soft drinks | 180 (373) | 127 (249) | <0,001 | -29% |
| Protein- and diet drinks | 8 (63) | 15 (65) | 0,007 | 83% |
| Sweets | 16 (41) | 17 (28) | 0,8 | 2% |
| Chips and pop corn | 8 (26) | 6 (16) | 0,02 | -25% |
1 t-test
Table II. Selected nutrients, nutrition surveys 2002 and 2010/11,
Mean/day (sd), both sexes, age 18-80 years
|
2002 n=1174 |
2010/11 n=1312 |
p-value1 | Difference | |
| Energy, kcal | 2130 (996) | 2059 (725) | 0,06 | -3% |
| Protein, g | 90 (41) | 90 (35) | 0,04 | 0% |
| Fat, total, g | 88 (52) | 85 (37) | 0.2 | -3% |
| SFA2, g | 36.8 (24.1) | 34.2 (16.6) | 0.002 | -7% |
| n-3 LPUFA3, g | 0.7 (1.1) | 0.8 (1.2) | 0.003 | 19% |
| Trans – FA4, g | 3.4 (2.9) | 1.8 (1.2) | <0.001 | -46% |
| Carbohydrate, total, g | 233 (118) | 213 (82) | <0.001 | -9% |
| Sugar, total, g | 102 (73) | 95 (50) | 0.005 | -7% |
| Added sugar, g | 59 (64) | 47 (40) | <0.001 | -20% |
| Fiber, g | 16.7 (7.9) | 16.8 (7.1) | 0.6 | 1% |
| Vitamin-A, RE5 | 1649 (3599) | 1146 (2241) | <0.001 | -31% |
| Vitamin-D, µg | 6.1 (9.8) | 8.1 (9.3) | <0.001 | 33% |
| Vitamin-E, α –TE6 | 7.8 (6.5) | 10.5 (6.6) | <0.001 | 35% |
| Vitamin-C, mg | 80 (85) | 102 (81) | <0.001 | 28% |
| Calcium, mg | 1071 (624) | 923 (428) | <0.001 | -14% |
1t-test
2SFA: Saturated fatty acids
3LPUFA: Long-chain polyunsaturated fattu acids
4FA: Fatty acids
5RE: Retinol equivalents
6TE: Tochoferol equivalents
Table III. Energy nutrients, surveys 1990, 2002 and 2010/11, E%, mean (sd)
|
1990 n=1240 |
2002 n=1174 |
2010/11 n=1312 |
|
| Protein | 17.4 (3.3) | 17.9 (5.5) | 18.1 (4.5) |
| Fat, total | 41.0 (6.8) | 35.3 (9.4) | 36.2 (7.3) |
| SFA1 | 20.0 (4.4) | 14.7 (5.0) | 14.5 (3.9) |
| Trans-FA2 | 2.0 (1.2) | 1.4 (0.9) | 0.8 (0.4) |
| Carbohydrate,total | 40.7 (7.3) | 45.3 (10.0) | 42.2 (7.9) |
| Added sugar | 8.4 (6.1) | 10.6 (8.6) | 8.9 (6.2) |
1SFA: Saturated fatty acids
2FA: Fatty acids
Table IV. Number and percent of people having difficulties making ends meet, categorized by employment, age, sex, education and residence, n (%)
|
Very easy n=242 |
Rather easy n=340 |
Neither nor n=377 |
Rather difficult n=237 |
Very difficult n=106 |
|
| Employed n=817 | 159 (19) | 215 (26) | 240 (29) | 142 (17) | 61 (7) |
| Student n=92 | 18 (20) | 27 (29) | 22 (24) | 16 (17) | 9 (10) |
|
Employed and student n=119 |
19 (16) | 31 (26) | 37 (31) | 28 (24) | 4 (3) |
| Retired n=140 | 35 (25) | 38 (27) | 40 (29) | 20 (14) | 7 (5) |
|
Disabled n=31 |
2 (6) | 5 (16) | 6 (19) | 10 (32) | 8 (26) |
|
Unemployed n=40 |
1 (3) | 6 (15) | 11 (28) | 11 (28) | 11 (28) |
|
Men n=632 |
143 (23) | 165 (26) | 170 (27) | 103 (16) | 49 (8) |
| Women n=680 | 99 (15) | 176 (26) | 207 (31) | 134 (20) | 57 (8) |
|
18-30 years n=250 |
43 (17) | 73 (30) | 75 (30) | 43 (17) | 12 (5) |
|
31-60 years n=744 |
120 (16) | 176 (24) | 227 (31) | 147 (20) | 72 (10) |
|
61-80 years n=318 |
79 (25) | 91 (29) | 75 (24) | 47 (15) | 22 (7) |
|
Education 11 n=410 |
59 (15) | 106 (26) | 122 (30) | 72 (18) | 46 (11) |
|
Education 22 n=447 |
78 (18) | 113 (25) | 134 (30) | 90 (20) | 30 (7) |
|
Education 33 n=451 |
104 (23) | 121 (27) | 121 (27) | 73 (16) | 29 (6) |
|
Capital area n=797 |
147 (19) | 213 (27) | 231 (29) | 137 (17) | 60 (8) |
| Outs capital area4 n=515 | 95 (18) | 127 (25% | 146 (28) | 100 (19) | 46 (9) |
|
1Elementary education 2Trade, secondary school |
|||||
| 3University | |||||
| 4Outside capital area |
Table V. Daily mean consumption of selected food items or nutrients considered indicators of healthy diet among people finding it easy or difficult to make ends meet.
|
Easy1 n=582 |
Difficult2 n=343 |
p-value3 | |
| Fruit, total | 126 | 107 | 0,02 |
| Vegetables, total | 123 | 110 | 0.03 |
| Whole grain bread | 25 | 16 | <0.001 |
| Fish | 48 | 44 | 0.6 |
| Red meat | 74 | 67 | 0.3 |
| Highly proc.meat4 | 21 | 26 | 0.03 |
| Sweets | 16 | 18 | 0.3 |
| Soft drinks, total | 178 | 256 | <0.001 |
| Sugared soft dr.5 | 112 | 172 | <0.001 |
| Sugarless soft dr.5 | 66 | 84 | 0.4 |
| Cookies and cakes | 50 | 44 | 0.2 |
| Hard fat6, E% | 15.4 | 15.3 | 0.8 |
| Added sugar, E% | 8.5 | 9.8 | 0.002 |
| Fiber, g/10 MJ7 | 20.3 | 19.7 | 0.1 |
| PUFA8, E% | 5.9 | 5.9 | 0.5 |
| Sodium, mg | 3296 | 3033 | 0.03 |
| Sodium, mg/kcal | 1.56 | 1.57 | 0.6 |
1 Rather easy and very easy combined
2 Rather difficult and very difficult combined
3Linear regression, adjusted according to sex, age, education and residence
4Highly processed meat
5Soft drinks
6Hard fat=SFA and trans FA combined
7MJ: Megajoule
8PUFA: Polyunsaturated fatty acids